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The Gender Wage Gap in Bulgaria: A Semiparametric Estimation of Discrimination

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Author Info
Dean Jolliffe

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Abstract

Bulgaria's transition to a market economy has coincided with a large increase in wage inequality. Given the emphasis on wage leveling in pre-transition Bulgaria, the rise in wage inequality may be due to managers rewarding more productive workers; or it may be the result of rewarding non-economic characteristics such as gender. Using data from the 1995, nationally representative Bulgaria Integrated Household Survey, I examine whether gender discrimination is an important factor determining the gap in wages between men and women and the extent to which gender discrimination affects wage inequality. I model wage determination with a correction for sample selection as a Type III Tobit and estimate this model with the Honoré et al. (1997) semiparametric estimator. Unlike the classic Heckman correction for sample selection, this estimator is consistent in the presence of heteroscedasticity. I bootstrap to estimate standard errors. Using separate wage regression estimates for men and women, an Oaxaca decomposition indicates that women's wages are 25 percent lower than men's wages and 85 percent of this differential is due to discrimination, or more precisely, due to differences in how men and women are rewarded for the same characteristics.

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Paper provided by William Davidson Institute at the University of Michigan Stephen M. Ross Business School in its series William Davidson Institute Working Papers Series with number 401.

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Date of creation: 01 Jul 2001
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Handle: RePEc:wdi:papers:2001-401

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Related research
Keywords: human capital wage differentials Bulgaria discrimination gender sample selection model type 3 Tobit semiparametric estimation

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Find related papers by JEL classification:
I2 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education
J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
C14 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Econometric and Statistical Methods: General - - - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods

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  1. Christopher Ferrall, 1998. "Routines to maximize a function," Stata Technical Bulletin, StataCorp LP, vol. 7(38). [Downloadable!]
  2. Branko Milanovic, 1999. "Explaining the increase in inequality during transition," The Economics of Transition, The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, vol. 7(2), pages 299-341, July. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  3. Heckman, James J, 1974. "Shadow Prices, Market Wages, and Labor Supply," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 42(4), pages 679-94, July. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  4. Arabmazar, Abbas & Schmidt, Peter, 1981. "Further evidence on the robustness of the Tobit estimator to heteroskedasticity," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 17(2), pages 253-258, November. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  5. Powell, James L, 1986. "Symmetrically Trimmed Least Squares Estimation for Tobit Models," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 54(6), pages 1435-60, November. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  6. Milan Vodopivec & Peter F. Orazem, 2000. "Male-female differences in labor market outcomes during the early transition to market: The cases of Estonia and Slovenia," Journal of Population Economics, Springer, vol. 13(2), pages 283-303. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  7. Honore, Bo E. & Kyriazidou, Ekaterini & Udry, Christopher, 1997. "Estimation of Type 3 Tobit models using symmetric trimming and pairwise comparisons," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 76(1-2), pages 107-128. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  8. Hurd, Michael, 1979. "Estimation in truncated samples when there is heteroscedasticity," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 11(2-3), pages 247-258. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  9. Oaxaca, Ronald, 1973. "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets," International Economic Review, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University Institute of Social and Economic Research Association, vol. 14(3), pages 693-709, October. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  10. Psacharopoulos, George, 1994. "Returns to investment in education: A global update," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 22(9), pages 1325-1343, September. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  11. Blau, Francine D & Kahn, Lawrence M, 1992. "The Gender Earnings Gap: Learning from International Comparisons," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 82(2), pages 533-38, May. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  12. Pagan, Adrian & Vella, Frank, 1989. "Diagnostic Tests for Models Based on Individual Data: A Survey," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 4(S), pages S29-59, Supplemen. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  13. David Neumark, 1987. "Employers' discriminatory behavior and the estimation of wage discrimination," Special Studies Papers 227, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.).
  14. Powell, James L., 1984. "Least absolute deviations estimation for the censored regression model," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 25(3), pages 303-325, July. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  15. Nelson, Forrest D, 1981. "A Test for Misspecification in the Censored Normal Model," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 49(5), pages 1317-29, September. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  16. Appleton, Simon & Hoddinott, John & Krishnan, Pramila, 1999. "The Gender Wage Gap in Three African Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change, University of Chicago Press, vol. 47(2), pages 289-312, January.
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Cited by:
(explanations, Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.)

  1. Ira N. Gang & John Landon-Lane & Ralitza Dimova, 2006. "Where to Work? The Role of the Household in explaining Gender Differences in Labour Market Outcomes," Departmental Working Papers 200623, Rutgers University, Department of Economics. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  2. Alena Bicáková & Jiri Slacalek & Michal Slavík, 2008. "Labor supply after transition. Evidence from the Czech Republic," Working Paper Series 887, European Central Bank. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  3. Dimova, Ralitza & Gang, Ira N., 2004. "Self-Selection and Earnings During Volatile Transition," IZA Discussion Papers 1158, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  4. Stepan Jurajda & Heike Harmgart, 2002. "Sex Segregation and Wage Gaps in East and West Germany," CERGE-EI Working Papers wp202, The Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education - Economic Institute, Prague. [Downloadable!]
  5. Daniela Andrén & Thomas Andrén, 2007. "Occupational Gender Composition and Wages in Romania: From Planned Equality to Market Inequality?," IZA Discussion Papers 3152, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  6. Dean Jolliffe & Nauro F. Campos, 2004. "Does Market Liberalisation Reduce Gender Discrimination? Econometric Evidence from Hungary, 1986—1998," William Davidson Institute Working Papers Series 2004-678, William Davidson Institute at the University of Michigan Stephen M. Ross Business School. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  7. Münich, Daniel & Svejnar, Jan & Terrell, Katherine, 2004. "Do Markets Favor Women’s Human Capital More than Planners?," IZA Discussion Papers 1393, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  8. Ina Ganguli & Katherine Terrell, 2005. "Wage Ceilings and Floors: The Gender Gap in Ukraine’s Transition," IZA Discussion Papers 1776, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
  9. Harmgart, Heike & Jurajda, Stepan, 2004. "When do 'Female' Occupations Pay More?," CEPR Discussion Papers 4270, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  10. Jurajda, Stepán & Harmgart, Heike, 2004. "When Are ‘Female’ Occupations Paying More?," IZA Discussion Papers 985, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
  11. Stepán Jurajda & Katherine Terrell, 2007. "Regional Unemployment and Human Capital in Transition Economies," IZA Discussion Papers 3176, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
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