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Does Free Primary Education Narrow Gender Differences in Schooling? Evidence from Kenya -super-†

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  • Adrienne M. Lucas
  • Isaac M. Mbiti

Abstract

We identify the impact of the 2003 Kenyan Free Primary Education (FPE) programme on gender imbalances in the number of students graduating from primary school and achievement on the primary school exit examination. Our identification strategy exploits temporal and spatial variations in the pre-programme dropout rates between districts in a difference-in-differences strategy. We find that the programme boosted primary school completion rates of both boys and girls, but had a larger effect for boys, thereby increasing the gender gap in graduation. Additionally, the programme led to a widening of the achievement gap in government schools. Overall, FPE increased educational access, but did not close gender gaps, suggesting that complementary programmes that specifically target girls may be necessary to reduce these gaps. Copyright 2012 , Oxford University Press.

Suggested Citation

  • Adrienne M. Lucas & Isaac M. Mbiti, 2012. "Does Free Primary Education Narrow Gender Differences in Schooling? Evidence from Kenya -super-†," Journal of African Economies, Centre for the Study of African Economies, vol. 21(5), pages -722, November.
    • Handle: RePEc:oup:jafrec:v:21:y:2012:i:5:p:-722
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    Cited by:

    1. Keats, Anthony, 2018. "Women's schooling, fertility, and child health outcomes: Evidence from Uganda's free primary education program," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 142-159.
    2. Buhl-Wiggers, Julie & Jones, Sam & Thornton, Rebecca, 2021. "Boys lagging behind: Unpacking gender differences in academic achievement across East Africa," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 83(C).
    3. Chicoine,Luke, 2020. "Free Primary Education, Fertility, and Women's Access to the Labor Market : Evidence from Ethiopia," Policy Research Working Paper Series 9105, The World Bank.
    4. Moussa P Blimpo & Ousman Gajigo & Todd Pugatch, 2019. "Financial Constraints and Girls’ Secondary Education: Evidence from School Fee Elimination in The Gambia," The World Bank Economic Review, World Bank, vol. 33(1), pages 185-208.
    5. Lucas, Adrienne M. & Chidothe, Margaret & Wilson, Nicholas L., 2019. "Effects of adult health interventions at scale on children’s schooling: Evidence from antiretroviral therapy in Zambia," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 72(C), pages 107-120.
    6. Jennifer C Stevenson & Gillian H Stresman & Caroline W Gitonga & Jonathan Gillig & Chrispin Owaga & Elizabeth Marube & Wycliffe Odongo & Albert Okoth & Pauline China & Robin Oriango & Simon J Brooker , 2013. "Reliability of School Surveys in Estimating Geographic Variation in Malaria Transmission in the Western Kenyan Highlands," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 8(10), pages 1-1, October.
    7. Oasis Kodila‐Tedika & Christian S. Otchia, 2022. "The effects of free primary education in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A difference‐in‐differences approach," Review of Development Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 26(4), pages 2109-2120, November.
    8. Pamela Jakiela, 2021. "Simple Diagnostics for Two-Way Fixed Effects," Papers 2103.13229, arXiv.org.
    9. Monica J. Grant, 2015. "The Demographic Promise of Expanded Female Education: Trends in the Age at First Birth in Malawi," Population and Development Review, The Population Council, Inc., vol. 41(3), pages 409-438, September.
    10. Evans David K. & Akmal Maryam & Jakiela Pamela, 2021. "Gender gaps in education: The long view," IZA Journal of Development and Migration, Sciendo & Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit GmbH (IZA), vol. 12(1), pages 1-27, January.
    11. Atuhurra, Julius F., 2016. "Does community involvement affect teacher effort? Assessing learning impacts of Free Primary Education in Kenya," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 234-246.
    12. Ousman Gajigo, 2016. "Closing the education gender gap: estimating the impact of girls' scholarship program in The Gambia," Education Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 24(2), pages 167-188, April.
    13. Roxana Elena Manea; Pedro Naso, 2020. "School Fee Elimination and Educational Inequality in Tanzania," CIES Research Paper series 64-2020, Centre for International Environmental Studies, The Graduate Institute.
    14. Chicoine, Luke, 2016. "Free Primary Education, Schooling, and Fertility: Evidence from Ethiopia," IZA Discussion Papers 10387, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    15. Chicoine, Luke, 2019. "Schooling with learning: The effect of free primary education and mother tongue instruction reforms in Ethiopia," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 94-107.
    16. Chicoine, Luke, 2016. "Identifying National Level Education Reforms in Developing Settings: An Application to Ethiopia," IZA Discussion Papers 9916, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    17. Siameh, Celestine O., 2020. "The Impact of Education Reforms on Household Adult Welfare Outcomes in Ethiopia: The 1994 Free Primary Education (FPE) Reform," 2020 Annual Meeting, July 26-28, Kansas City, Missouri 304567, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association.
    18. Langsten, Ray, 2017. "School fee abolition and changes in education indicators," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 163-175.
    19. Maluccio, John A. & Hussein, Mohamed & Abuya, Benta & Muluve, Eva & Muthengi, Eunice & Austrian, Karen, 2018. "Adolescent girls’ primary school mobility and educational outcomes in urban Kenya," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 75-87.
    20. Fatoke-Dato, Mafaïzath A., 2015. "Impact of an educational demand-and-supply policy on girls' education in West Africa: Heterogeneity in income, school environment and ethnicity," BERG Working Paper Series 101, Bamberg University, Bamberg Economic Research Group.
    21. Ferdinand Ahiakpor & Raymond Swaray, 2015. "Parental expectations and school enrolment decisions: Evidence from rural Ghana," Review of Development Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 19(1), pages 132-142, February.
    22. Michael L. Goodman & Beatrice J. Selwyn & Robert O. Morgan & Linda E. Lloyd & Moses Mwongera & Stanley Gitari & Philip H. Keiser, 2016. "Improved food quality, quantity and security among Kenyan orphans and vulnerable children: associations with participation in a multisectoral community-based program, age, gender, and sexual risk," Food Security: The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production and Access to Food, Springer;The International Society for Plant Pathology, vol. 8(2), pages 427-442, April.
    23. Roxana Elena Manea; Pedro Naso, 2021. "Heterogeneous Impacts of School Fee Elimination in Tanzania: Gender and Colonial Infrastructure," CIES Research Paper series 64-2020, Centre for International Environmental Studies, The Graduate Institute.

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