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Strength in numbers? A test of Kanter's theory of tokenism

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  • Stichman, Amy J.
  • Hassell, Kimberly D.
  • Archbold, Carol A.

Abstract

Kanter's tokenism theory argues that once tokens reach a tipping point of 15 percent representation in the work place, they begin to experience fewer work place problems. This study tested this assertion using a survey of eighty-seven officers in a midwestern municipal police agency, where female officers constituted over 17 percent of the total sworn patrol officers. The three dimensions of tokenism were examined quantitatively to ascertain differences between male and female officers. On two of the dimensions, there were no differences between male and female officers, but the third dimension showed that female officers still perceived their work place differently from male officers. Only partial support of Kanter's theory was found. It was evident that even in this department, however, females still felt like they stood out and were underestimated by their peers. The findings also suggested that tokenism is more complex than a "numbers game," and that quantitative examinations alone might not fully explain the myriad aspects of tokenism.

Suggested Citation

  • Stichman, Amy J. & Hassell, Kimberly D. & Archbold, Carol A., 2010. "Strength in numbers? A test of Kanter's theory of tokenism," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 38(4), pages 633-639, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:jcjust:v:38:y::i:4:p:633-639
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Gustafson, Joseph L., 2008. "Tokenism in policing: An empirical test of Kanter's hypothesis," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 36(1), pages 1-10, March.
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    1. Yongbeom Hur, 2023. "Improving Job Satisfaction Among Racial/Ethnic Minorities: The Case of U.S. Federal Employees," Public Organization Review, Springer, vol. 23(3), pages 1293-1310, September.
    2. Benan KURT YILMAZ & Olca SÜRGEVİL DALKILIÇ, 2020. "Cinsiyete Dayalı Tokenizm: Kadın Egemen ve Erkek Egemen Meslekler Üzerinde Nitel Bir Araştırma," Istanbul Management Journal, Istanbul University Business School, vol. 0(88), pages 85-125, June.
    3. Bashir Bello & Mansur Muhammad Bello, 2023. "An Empirical Study of the Numerical Proportions of Women Academics in Selected Universities in Nigeria: A Study of Federal University Gusau and Umaru Musa Yar’adua University," SAGE Open, , vol. 13(2), pages 21582440231, June.
    4. Enkhzul Galsanjigmed & Tomoki Sekiguchi, 2023. "Challenges Women Experience in Leadership Careers: An Integrative Review," Merits, MDPI, vol. 3(2), pages 1-24, May.

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